Volume 70 No.4（Open Access） - 2024-12-31

【Research Paper】A Case Study of Guidance and Counseling Practices in Schools Based on Second-Order Observation

【研究論文】學校輔導實踐如何可能的二階觀察個案研究

Author：
Meng-An Lin / 林孟安
Keyword：
tsecond-order observation, social systems theory, case study, junior high school, guidance and counseling / 二階觀察、社會系統理論、個案研究、國民中學、學校輔導
  • Summary
  • Chinese Summary
  • Reference
  • Scholarly references
(1) Purpose: In response to the increasingly complex challenges of contemporary school guidance and counseling, the Student Guidance and Counseling Act emphasizes the goal of promoting and safeguarding students’ physical and mental well-being and holistic development. It also mandates that principals and teachers take on corresponding responsibilities. However, existing literature has yet to adequately address how schools integrate various departments and personnel to collaboratively advance these goals. The German sociologist N. Luhmann’s perspective of “communication constituting society” and his concept of second-order observation (Beobachtung zweiter Ordnung) provide a useful framework for exploring the following research questions: “interpretations of school counseling practices through second-order observation;” “the results of second order observation on how classroom management drives school counseling;” “the outcomes of second-order observation on administrative departments’ collective efforts to promote school counseling;” as well as “insights for the professional development of educational staff in school counseling based on second-order observation.” Based on these perspectives, this study analyzes the issues and provides practical recommendations for improving school counseling practices. (2) Main Theories or Conceptual Frameworks: Applying Luhmann’s Social Systems Theory (Theorie sozialer Systeme) and the concept of “second-order observation”- “to observe of observations”- this study explored how social systems and their functionally differentiated subsystems establish connections with their environments to achieve “structural coupling” based on the concept of “system/environment differentiation.” (3) Research Design/Methods/Participants: This study adopted a qualitative research approach within an interpretative paradigm, conducting a case study at a public junior high school recognized for its achievements in guidance and counseling. Data were collected through interviews from 28 participants, including members from the counseling office, academic affairs office, student affairs office, general affairs office, as well as homeroom teachers and the principal. Through Social Systems Theory, the study defined the functionally differentiated subsystems within the school system and applied an analytical framework encompassing “counseling office system observations on guidance and counseling,” “homeroom teacher system observations on guidance and counseling,” “administrative system observations on guidance and counseling,” and “education personnel system observations on guidance and counseling.” This study examined the process of connecting relationships in guidance and counseling, thereby addressing the research questions. (4) Research Findings or Conclusions: The practices of school guidance and counseling are a process of structural coupling between various functional systems and the environment and student systems. The integration of diverse resources in classroom management is linked to the counseling office. The guidance and counseling relationship between educational personnel and student systems, and the collaborative efforts across different school departments to promote guidance and counseling, reflect the relationships between various functional systems. The professional development indicates the self-generating diversity of the guidance and counseling in the school. (5) Theoretical or Practical Insights/Contributions/Recommendations: Applying Luhmann’s social systems theory to school guidance and counseling research addresses aspects such as classroom management, administrative promotion, and professional development. Communication between the differentiated functional systems within junior high schools aligns with guidance education, reflecting the support for students’ appropriate interpersonal relationships and career exploration to respond to societal needs. Based on the findings, this study proposes the following specific recommendations: 1) the counseling office should generate further communication through existing channels to develop guidance and counseling practices and achieve structural coupling within the school system; 2) schools should integrate internal and external resources to develop class management functions related to guidance and counseling, thereby establishing connections among various subsystems; 3) school administration should plan support and communication measures for guidance and counseling across different offices to ensure effective connections between them, and 4) schools should establish professional development programs for teachers to facilitate relationships aligned with guidance and counseling objectives.
（1）研究目的：回應當代學校輔導（guidance and counseling）問題日益複雜，《學生輔導法》指出促進與維護學生身心健康及全人發展的目標，且要求學校校長及教師均須負起相關責任。然而，既有文獻卻尚未能確實關注到該如何整合校內各處室等教育人員共同推動此一目標。衡諸德國社會學者N. Luhmann的「溝通組成社會」觀點以及「二階觀察」（Beobachtung zweiter Ordnung），有助於回應「學校輔導實踐的二階觀察詮釋」、「班級經營推動學校輔導的二階觀察結果」、「行政處室共同推動學校輔導的二階觀察結果」，以及「依據二階觀察結果對教育人員學校輔導專業發展的啟示」等研究問題，本研究據此分析，進而提出學校輔導的實務建議。 （2）主要理論或概念架構：應用Luhmann社會系統理論（Theorie sozialer Systeme）以及其二階觀察「對觀察的觀察」等觀點，自「系統／環境」（system/environment）的區別（differentiation）探討社會系統、功能分化諸次系統（functionally differentiated subsystems），以及其與環境之間的關係（relationship）如何銜接（connect），以實現「結構耦合」（structural coupling）。 （3）研究設計／方法／對象：本研究依循質性研究（qualitative research）的詮釋典範（interpretative paradigm），為一所在學校輔導向度具有辦理績效的公立國民中學，實施個案研究（case study），應用訪談法（interview），對個案學校輔導室、教務處、學務處、總務處等處室成員，以及導師與校長等28位受訪者，進行研究資料的蒐集；再透過社會系統理論對學校系統功能分化的諸次系統進行界定，並依據「輔導室系統學校輔導的觀察」、「導師系統學校輔導的觀察」、「行政系統學校輔導的觀察」，以及「教育人員系統學校輔導的觀察」的分析架構，觀察學校輔導溝通關係的銜接過程，據以回應研究問題。 （4）研究發現或結論：依據二階觀察結果，學校輔導實踐為功能分化諸次系統、環境與學生系統結構耦合的過程，實務上整合多元資源的班級經營與跨處室的共同推動，即輔導室、教育人員與學生系統等諸次系統之間及其與環境銜接學校輔導關係，教師輔導專業發展即學校系統自我生成學校輔導的多元形式。 （5）理論或實務創見／貢獻／建議：應用Luhmann社會系統理論於學校輔導研究，指涉學校輔導的班級經營、行政推動以及專業發展等向度；國民中學其學校功能分化諸次系統之間的溝通，能銜接學校輔導關係，反映出對於學生發展適切人我關係與生涯探索以回應社會的助益。據此，本研究提出「輔導室透過溝通生成更多的溝通，發展學校輔導，實現學校系統結構耦合」、「學校整合校內外資源，發展班級經營的學校輔導功能銜接諸次系統關係」、「學校行政規劃各處室對於學校輔導的支持與溝通措施以銜接彼此關係」，以及「學校制定銜接學校輔導關係的教師專業發展方案」等具體建議。
田秀蘭、盧鴻文（2018）。我國國民中學輔導工作50年的回顧與展望。教育研究集刊，
　　64（4），77-106。https://doi.org/10.3966/102887082018126404004
[Tien, H.-L., & Lu, H.-W. (2018). Retrospect and perspective of school guidance and counseling 
　　in junior high school in Taiwan. Bulletin of Educational Research, 64(4), 77-106. https://
　　doi.org/10.3966/102887082018126404004]
阮曉眉（2011）。魯曼的溝通運作：一個去人文主義化的轉向。政治與社會哲學評論，
　　36，1-37。https://doi.org/10.6523/168451532011030036001
　　aspx?pcode=H0060043
[Senior High School Education Act (2021, May 26). https://law.moj.gov.tw/LawClass/LawAll.
　　aspx?pcode=H0060043]
國民教育法施行細則（2023年12月18日）。https://law.moj.gov.tw/LawClass/LawAll.
　　aspx?pcode=H0070008
[Enforcement Rules of Primary and Junior High School Act (2023, December 18). https://law.
　　moj.gov.tw/LawClass/LawAll.aspx?pcode=H0070008]
黃鉦堤（2006）。盧曼的風險社會學與政策制定。政治科學論叢，28，123-162。https://
　　doi.org/10.6166/TJPS.28(123-162)
[Huang, J.-T. (2006). Niklas Luhmann’s study of risk-sociology and policy-making. Political 
　　Science Review, 28, 123-162. https://doi.org/10.6166/TJPS.28(123-162)]
教育部（2020）。國民中學學校輔導工作參考手冊。https://ws.moe.edu.tw/001/Upload/10/
　　relfile/9064/83731/5581b84c-1852-47e6-99f6-02814b6d9802.pdf
[Ministry of Education. (2020). Reference manual for junior high school guidance and 
　　counseling. https://ws.moe.edu.tw/001/Upload/10/relfile/9064/83731/5581b84c-1852
　　47e6-99f6-02814b6d9802.pdf]
許育光（2011）。國小輔導教師之實務培訓與督導需求初探。教育實踐與研究，24
　　（2），99-127。https://doi.org/10.6776/JEPR.201112.0102
[Hsu, Y.-K. (2011). Preliminary investigation of practice training and supervision needs of 
　　elementary school counselors. Journal of Educational Practice and Research, 24(2), 99
　　127. https://doi.org/10.6776/JEPR.201112.0102]
許育光、刑志彬（2019）。臺灣學校心理師何去何從？—從現況評述、課程檢
　　核到培育反思。當代教育研究季刊，27（3），35-64。https://doi.org/ 10.6151/
　　CERQ.201909_27(3).0002
[Hsu, Y.-K., & Hsing, C.-P. (2019). Phenomenon review, curriculum investigation, and reflections 
　　on the professional training of school psychologist in Taiwan. Contemporary Educational 
　　Research Quarterly, 27(3), 35-64. https://doi.org/10.6151/CERQ.201909_27(3).0002]
程國選（2009）。職業取向生涯教育課程對國中學習遲緩學生生涯成熟之影響。教育科
　　學研究期刊，54（1），87-112。
[Cheng, K.-H. (2009). The effect of vocation-oriented career program on career maturity of 
　　junior high slow learners. Journal of Research in Education Sciences, 54(1), 87-112.]
張民杰（2008）。中小學專家教師班級常規策略之分析與比較。教育學刊，31，79-
　　119。https://doi.org/10.6450/ER.200812.0079
[Chang, M.-C. (2008). An analysis and comparison of classroom discipline strategies of expert 
　　teachers in primary and secondary schools. Educational Review, 31, 79-119. https://doi.
　　org/10.6450/ER.200812.0079]
張德銳、吳明芳（2000）。營造親師生三贏局面的班級經營策略。課程與教學，3
　　（2），33-45。https://doi.org/10.6384/CIQ.200004.0033
[Chang, D.-R., & Wu, M.-F. (2000). Classroom management strategies of establishing a win-win 
　　result for teachers, students, and parents. Curriculum & Instruction Quarterly, 3(2), 33-45. 
　　https://doi.org/10.6384/CIQ.200004.0033]
楊巧玲（2022）。臺灣的國中輔導工作屬性與輔導教師專業認同：在不確定性與低能
　　見度中自我協商。教育研究與發展期刊，18（3），1-32。https://doi.org/10.6925/
　　SCJ.202209_18(3).0001
[Yang, C.-L. (2022). Guidance teachers’ professional identity in junior high school in Taiwan: 
　　Negotiating with oneself in uncertainty and invisibility. Journal of Educational Research 
　　and Development, 18(3), 1-32. https://doi.org/10.6925/SCJ.202209_18(3).0001]
廖俞榕、連廷嘉（2012）。阿德勒取向團體諮商對於青少年網路成癮的諮商成效。教育
　　實踐與研究，25（2），67-95。https://doi.org/10.6776/JEPR.201212.0067
[Liao, Y.-R., & Lien, T.-C. (2012). The effects of adlerian group counseling on adolescents with 
　　internet addiction. Journal of Educational Practice and Research, 25(2), 67-95. https://doi.
　　org/10.6776/JEPR.201212.0067]
譚子文、董旭英（2010）。自我概念與父母教養方式對臺灣都會區高中生偏差行為之影
　　響。教育科學研究期刊，55（3），203-233。
[Tan, T.-W., & Tung, Y.-Y. (2010). The impacts of parenting and senior high school students’ 
　　self-concepts on delinquency in taiwan metropolitan areas. Journal of Research in 
　　Education Sciences, 55(3), 203-233.]
學生輔導法（2014年11月12日）。https://law.moj.gov.tw/LawClass/LawAll.aspx? 
　　pcode=H0070058
[Student Guidance and Counseling Act (2014, November 12). https://law.moj.gov.tw/LawClass/
　　LawAll.aspx?pcode=H0070058]
Allen, J. D. (1986). Classroom management: Students’ perspectives, goals, and strategies. 
　　American Educational Research Journal, 23(3), 437-459. https://doi.org/10.2307/1163059
Beck, L. G. (1994). Reclaiming educational administration as a caring profession. Teachers 
　　College Press.
Cinotti, D. (2014). Competing professional identity models in school counseling: A historical 
　　perspective and commentary. The Professional Counselor 4(5), 417-425. https://doi.
　　org/10.15241/dc.4.5.417
Dahir, C. A., Burnham, J. J., & Stone, C. (2009). Listen to the voices: School counselors and 
　　comprehensive school counseling programs. Professional School Counseling, 12(3), 182
　　192. https://doi.org/10.1177/2156759X0901200304
Emmer, E. T., & Stough, L. M. (2001). Classroom management: A critical part of educational 
　　psychology, with implications for teacher education. Educational Psychologist, 36(2), 103
　　112. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15326985EP3602_5
Glaser, B., & Strauss, A. (1999). Discovery of grounded theory: Strategies for qualitative 
　　research. Taylor & Francis.
Lee, V. E., & Ekstrom, R. B. (1987). Student access to guidance counseling in high school. 
　　American Educational Research Journal, 24(2), 287-310. https://doi.org/10.3102/ 
　　00028312024002287
Little, S. G., & Akin-Little, A. (2008). Psychology’s contributions to classroom management. 
　　Psychology in the Schools, 45(3), 227-234. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.20293
Leydesdorff, L. (2000). Luhmann, habermas and the theory of communication. Systems 
　　Research and Behavioral Science, 17(3), 273-288. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099
　　1743(200005/06)17:3<273::AID-SRES329>3.0.CO;2-R
Luhmann, N. (1989). Ecological communication. Polity Press.
Luhmann, N. (1995). The paradoxy of observing systems. Cultural Critique, 31, 37-55. https://
　　doi.org/10.2307/1354444
Luhmann, N. (1998). Observations on modernity. Stanford University Press.
Luhmann, N. (2000). Art as a social system. Stanford University Press.
Luhmann, N. (2002). Risk:A sociological theory. Routledge.
Luhmann, N. (2006). System as difference. Organization, 13(1), 37-57. https://doi.org/ 
　　10.1177/13505084060596
Luhmann, N., & Fuchs, S. (1994). “What is the case?” and “What lies behind it?” The two 
　　sociologies and the theory of society. Sociological Theory, 12(2), 126-139. https://doi.org/ 
　　10.2307/201859
Lunenburg, F. C. (2010). School guidance and counseling services. Schooling, 1(1), 1-9.
　　McMahon, H. G., Mason, E. C. M., & Paisley, P. O. (2009). School counselor educators as
　　educational leaders promoting systemic change. Professional School Counseling, 13(2). 
　　https://doi.org/10.1177/2156759X0901300207
Riehl, C. J. (2000). The principal’s role in creating inclusive schools for diverse 
　　students: A review of normative, empirical, and critical literature on the practice of 
　　educational administration. Review of Educational Research, 70(1), 55-81. https://doi.
　　org/10.3102/00346543070001055
Schoeneborn, D. (2011). Organization as communication: A Luhmannian perspective. 
　　Management Communication Quarterly, 25(4), 663-689. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 
　　089331891140562
Starratt, R. J. (1991). Building an ethical school: A theory for practice in educational leadership. 
　　Educational Administration Quarterly, 27(2), 185-202. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 
　　0013161X91027002005
Walter, D. (1980). Classroom management (ED206567). ERIC. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/
　　ED206567.pdf
Wilkinson, J., & Kemmis, S. (2015). Practice theory: Viewing leadership as leading. Educational 
　　Philosophy and Theory, 47(4), 342-358. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131857.2014.976928

 

Full Text Download


EndNote
下載可匯入格式